Introduction
1. Track and field safety regulations
INSTRUCTION on work safety for pupils at the conducting of the classes in athletics.
1. General safety requirements
Classes in athletics shall be held on athletic fields and in the gym equipped for this purpose.
Pupils are allowed to participate in the classes:
– Those classified by health condition as primary and preparatory medical groups;
– Have been briefed on safety measures;
– Have the sports shoes and uniforms that are not restrictive in movement and appropriate to the topic and conditions of the classes.
Shoes must be on the sole, excluding slippage, fit closely to the foot and not hinder blood circulation. In high winds, low temperatures and high humidity, clothing must be appropriate for the weather conditions.
The student must:
– Treat sports equipment and facilities with care and not use them inappropriately;
– not leave unattended sports equipment for jumps and throws including equipment which is not used at a given moment in the lesson;
– be careful when moving around the stadium;
– Know and follow these instructions.
Failure to follow safety precautions may result in a student being ineligible or suspended from participation in the class.
2. Safety Requirements Before Class Starts
The student must:
– Change in the locker room, put on athletic uniforms and shoes;
– take off objects that are a danger to other students (watches, dangling earrings, etc.);
– remove piercing and other foreign objects from pockets of the sports uniform;
– under the direction of the teacher prepare inventory and equipment necessary for the lesson;
– remove equipment that will not be used in the lesson to a safe place;
– Carry all equipment needed for the lesson in special equipment under the direction of the teacher to the place of the lesson;
– not bring shovels and rakes with the point and teeth upward to the classroom
– on the instructions of the teacher remove foreign objects from the running track, jumping pit, etc;
– on the teacher’s command stand in line for the general formation. 3.
3. Safety requirements during the exercise
RUN
The student must:
– when starting in a group for short distances, run in their lane;
– while running, keep his/her eyes on his/her lane;
– after performing running exercises, run for 5-15 m by inertia, so that the runner behind has an opportunity to finish the exercise;
– to return to the start on the extreme track, at the start on the distance not to put footsteps, not to hold up the opponents with hands;
– to overtake the runners on the right side of the track;
– when running cross-country, perform the task on a track or route designated by the teacher;
– perform warm-up jogging on the outermost track.
JUMPS
The sand in the landing pit must be wet, well loosened and its surface must be at the same level as the surface of the track for the jump-off. Before jumping, rakes, shovels and other foreign objects should be removed from the pit.
The jump technique should follow the curriculum and ensure that the student lands on his or her feet.
The student must:
– place the rake with the tines facing down;
– not perform jumps on uneven and slippery ground;
– perform jumps when the teacher has given permission and no one is in the pit;
– take turns jumping, do not run over the runway while another student is trying to jump;
– after a jump, quickly empty the jumping pit and return to their place for the next attempt on the right or left side of the track.
METHODS
Care must be taken in the throwing exercises.
The student must:
– make sure that no one is in the direction of the throw before throwing;
– Release the projectile in a manner that prevents tripping;
– Stand to the left of the thrower when throwing as a group;
– wipe hands and projectile dry in wet weather;
– being near the throwing zone, make sure that the thrower is in sight, do not turn to him/her with your back, do not cross the throwing zone by running or jumping;
– after the throw, follow the projectile only with the teacher’s permission, do not throw arbitrarily;
– When throwing to the goal, provide a safety zone for the projectile to bounce off the ground.
Do not pass the projectile to each other by throwing. Do not throw the projectile in places which are not equipped for it.
4. Safety Requirements in Emergency Situations
The student must:
– if injured or feeling unwell, discontinue the activity and notify the physical education teacher;
– with the help of the teacher, provide first aid to an injured person and, if necessary, take him/her to a hospital or call an ambulance;
– if there is a fire in the gym, immediately stop the class and, under the direction of the teacher, leave the place of the class through the emergency exits according to the evacuation plan;
– notify the administration of the school upon the teacher’s order and report the fire to the fire department.
5. Safety requirements at the end of lessons
– under the direction of the teacher, remove the sports equipment to the storage places;
– leave the class site in an orderly fashion;
– change clothes in the locker room, take off your tracksuit and sports shoes;
– wash their hands with soap and water.
Athletics is a complex sport, which includes various types of disciplines. It is rightly considered the queen of sports, not without reason, two of the three appeals in the motto “Faster, Higher, Stronger” can be attributed without hesitation precisely to athletics. Athletics was at the heart of the sports program of the first Olympic Games. Athletics succeeded to win its positions due to the simplicity, accessibility and, if you like, naturalness of its competitive disciplines. It is one of the major and most popular sports.
Athletics was able to gain its popularity due to the fact that it does not require expensive equipment. Due to this, athletics was able to become popular even in countries such as Asia, Africa and Latin America. It is because of its widespread development, the great popularity of the sport, its constantly progressive evolution, athletics was essentially recognized worldwide in the second half of the XX century and was called the “queen of sports”.For many decades, no one questioned the validity of this title loud. Athletics truly rules the sports world, it is loved and revered in the remotest corners of the world.
History of the origin of athletics
Athletics is one of the oldest sports. For example, many centuries before Christ, some people in Asia and Africa were organizing athletics competitions. But the true flowering of the sport came in ancient Greece. Wrestling, fistfighting and generally all the exercises that developed strength, the Greeks referred to weightlifting. It is clear that the name “athletics” today is rather conventional, because it is difficult to call, for example, running for extra long distances – a marathon or hammer throwing “light” physical exercises. Running is undoubtedly the most ancient athletic event.
The first Olympic Games of ancient times, of which we have a reliable record, were held in 776 B.C. Then the program of the competition included only running for 1 stage (192 m 27 cm). In 724 BC the second stage race was already underway and four years later the first Olympic long-distance race, stage 24, took place. Winning the games was very highly prized. The champions were given great honors and were elected to honorary positions and monuments were erected in their honor.
Long jumps and relay races (lampaderiomas) in which the participants passed a flaming torch to each other were very popular in ancient Greece. Later the discus throw and javelin throw were included in the Olympic Games, and in 708 BC the first pentathlon event was held, which consisted of a one-stage race, discus throw, javelin throw, long jump (in the sprint, the athlete held dumbbells weighing from 1.5 to 4.5 kg) and wrestling (pankration).
In the Middle Ages, there were no major athletics competitions, although there is evidence that on holidays people had fun, competing in throwing stones, long jumping, high jumping, speed running. Later, in Western Europe, running, jumping and throwing became part of the system of physical education of knights.
There were no clear competition rules in this period, so at each competition they were established by agreement between the athletes. However, gradually the rules became more and more stable. At the same time athletics equipment was also improved. After the invention of firearms in the 14th century, the throwing of a heavy stone was replaced by that of a metal cannonball. The forging hammer was gradually replaced by the hammer on a chain and then the cannonball on a chain (nowadays, the cannonball on a steel wire with a handle).
Athletics as a sport began to take shape only towards the end of the first half of the 19th century. Recorded results in the pole vault in 1789 (1 m 83 cm, D. Busch, Germany), in the one mile run in 1792 (5.52.0, F. Powell, Great Britain) and 440 yards in 1830 (2.06.0, A. Wood, Great Britain), in the high jump in 1827 (1.57.5, A. Wilson, Great Britain), in the hammer throw in 1838 (19 m 71 cm, Rayon, Ireland), in the shot put in 1839 (8 m 61 cm, T. Carradis, Canada), etc. It is believed that the history of modern athletics began with the running of about 2 kilometers by college students in Rugby (England) in 1837, after which such competitions began to be held at other educational institutions in England.Later in the program of competitions began to include short distances, hurdles, weight throw, and in 1851 – long jump and high jump from the jump. In 1864, the first competitions between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge were held, which later became annual and initiated traditional bilateral matches.
In 1865 the London Athletics Club was founded to promote athletics, hold competitions and oversee compliance with amateur status. The supreme body of athletics – the Amateur Athletic Association – which united all the athletic organizations of the British Empire, was organized in 1880.
Athletics began to develop somewhat later than in England in the United States (the Athletic Club in New York was organized in 1868, the Student Athletic Union – in 1875), where it quickly reached a wide spread in universities. This ensured in the following years (until 1952) the leading position of American athletes in the world. By 1880-1890 amateur athletics associations had been organized in many countries around the world, uniting individual clubs, leagues and were given the rights of the supreme bodies of athletics.
The revival of the modern Olympics in 1896 had a great influence on the development of athletics. The program of the Games of the First Olympiad in Athens (1896) included 12 kinds of athletics. Almost all of the medals at these Games were won by American track and field athletes.
On July 17, 1912 in Stockholm was established the International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF), the body that governs the development of athletics and organizes competitions in this sport. At the time of its establishment the federation included 17 countries. At present time members of the IAAF are national athletics federations of 210 countries.
According to its statutes, the IAAF promotes cooperation between national federations to promote athletics in the world, drafts rules and regulations for men’s and women’s track and field competitions, resolves disputes between members of the Federation, works with the International Olympic Committee, approves world records and resolves technical issues in athletics. It is now called the International Association of Athletics Federations {IAAF – International Association of Athletic Federations).
3. Types of athletics and their characteristics
3.1 Running and sprinting. Relay race
Short-distance running (sprint) is characterized by the performance of short-term work of maximum intensity. It includes running at distances of 30 to 400 m. For the convenience of studying the technique of running is conventionally divided into four parts: the beginning of the run (start), the starting sprint, running on the distance and finishing.
The start is as fast as possible. Fractions of a second lost at the start are difficult and sometimes impossible to recoup over the course. A low start is the most advantageous. It makes it possible to start running fast and achieve maximum speed over a short distance (20-25 m).
You should use a starter set or pads for better footing at the start. Depending on the length of your body and your running technique you’ll put the front foot block (for the strongest foot) at a distance of 35 to 45 cm from the start line (1 to 1.5 feet), and the back foot block – at 70 to 85 cm (or at shin length from the front foot block). Starting pads located close to each other ensure simultaneous pushing off with both feet when you start running. The footing of the front pad is inclined at an angle of 45-50° and the rear pad at 60-80°. The distance (in width) between the axes of the pads is usually 18-20 cm.
A low start is performed in the following sequence: having set the pads, the runner steps back 2-3 m and focuses his attention on the upcoming run. At the command “On Start!” the runner approaches the pads, squats down and places his hands on the track. Then with the foot of the weaker leg rests on the support platform of the back pad, with the foot of the other leg – in the front pad and drops to the knee of the behind leg. Last, he places his hands behind the starting line at shoulder width or slightly wider. The hands at the start line rest on the thumb, index finger and middle finger, with the thumbs facing each other and the arms straightened at the elbows, the head held straight, the body weight partially transferred to the hands,
At the command “Attention!” the athlete straightens his legs and takes the knee off the ground, raises the pelvis and puts the shoulders in front. A large part of the body weight is transferred to the hands, while the foot rest in the pads is still quite strong. The torso is slightly bent, the head is lowered, the gaze is directed down – forward. The runner should keep this position without moving until the next command. The toes and the toes of the starter should always touch the track surface. The time interval between the “Start!” command and the signal to begin the race is not stipulated by the rules. The interval shall be determined by the Starter. This requires the runner to concentrate to perceive the starting signal.
At the command “March!” (or shot) the runner pushes off vigorously with his legs and performs rapid movements with his arms bent at the elbows. The push off is done at an acute angle to the track. The movements when leaving the start line should be as fast as possible.
The start run-up is carried out on the first 10-14 running steps. In this part of the distance the runner should gain the highest speed. On the first two or three steps he tries to straighten his legs as much as possible and makes sure that he doesn’t lift his feet high above the track. The length of steps gradually increases. The length of the first step will be equal to 4.5-5 feet, if you measure from the back pad, the second step – 4.5, the fifth – 5, the sixth – 5.5 feet, etc. And so up to 8-9 stops in a step. The length of the steps largely depends on the individual characteristics of the runner: leg strength, body length, physical fitness, etc. The acceleration ends as soon as the stride length becomes constant. A good running stride is one which is 30-40 cm longer than the runner’s body length. The torso is gradually straightened, the arm movements gain maximum amplitude.
Running on the distance. Having gained maximum speed, the runner tries to maintain it over the whole distance. The transition from the initial run-up to the distance run is made smoothly, without a sharp straightening of the torso and without changing the rhythm of running steps. A masters sprinter’s run is characterized by wide and frequent steps with a powerful push-off. Quick hip thrusts forward and upward play an important role here, which creates the prerequisites for setting the foot on the track with an active paddling movement. Mastering the technique of sprinting, an athlete should try to run on the front part of the foot, almost without touching the track with the heel. Vigorous arm work should not cause shoulder elevation and slouching of the back.
Finishing is the runner’s effort in the last meters of the course. The run is completed when the runner touches an imaginary plane of the finish line with any part of the torso. The finish line should be run at full speed with a chest or sideways throw to the ribbon in the last step. Beginners should run through the finish line at full speed without thinking about the ribbon toss.
The 200 m and 400 m starts usually take place on the curve of the treadmill. This allows you to run the initial section of the course in a straight line: this makes it easier to develop maximum speed. To counteract the centrifugal forces, the sprinter bends his/her torso slightly to the left and slightly turns the feet to the left as he or she runs up to the curve. The higher the running speed and the greater the curvature of the track, the more the torso tilts toward the center of the circle.
Relay running
Relay running is a team event in which participants alternately run sections of distance, passing each other a baton. According to the rules of the competition relay baton has a mass of at least 50 g, length 30 cm and a diameter of 4 cm, the transfer of the baton is allowed only in the area of length equal to 20 meters. The technique of running with the baton is practically the same as running on the distance. Important in relay running is the technique of passing the baton, which occurs at high speed in a restricted area.
The team is deemed to have completed the distance if the baton is carried from start to finish without violating the competition rules. It is passed from hand to hand, throwing it or rolling it over the track is not allowed. If the baton is dropped during the handover, the handler must pick it up. When passing the baton is prohibited any help from one participant to another.
The competitors of the first leg, as in short distance running, may start from a low start position. The person taking the baton can make a control mark on the track from the transferring side at a distance of 7 to 9 meters from the place of his start. This distance is specified during training. Having made the mark, the receiver stands at the beginning of the handover zone in a high or half-low start position and, concentrating on the control mark, waits for his team’s runner.
In laps of up to 200 m when running in separate lanes, the receiver may start 10 m before the handover zone. The control mark in this case shall be made 7-9 m from the place where the host runner starts.
It is very important for the receiver to correctly calculate the start of his run, so that the baton transfer takes place in the transfer zone and at full speed. As soon as the receiver notices that the transferor has reached the control mark, he starts running as fast as possible. By the middle of the zone, the relay should be close to the receiver at arm’s length and both should run at the same speed. This is the best position for passing the baton. The transferor gives the predetermined signal (“Gop!” or other). At this signal, the receiver, without reducing running speed, puts his hand back. At the same time, the palm should be down and the thumb should be pointed to the thigh. At that moment, the sender puts the baton into the receiver’s palm with a downward motion. The ideal handover is when the runners, walking in step, at full speed and without disturbing the rhythm of the hands, without taking a single step with outstretched arms, will pass the baton in a single moment.
The athlete who has completed the stage must remain in his lane. He may only leave it when he is sure that he will not disturb the other runners. In short relays (4X60, 4X100), the baton is carried in the hand in which it is received without moving it from hand to hand. In this case, the method of passing the baton is used: the starter at the first stage holds the baton in his right hand and runs as close as possible to the inner line of the track; the waiting second runner stands closer to the outer edge of his track and takes the baton with his left hand; he runs a straight line (the second 100 m) on the right side of his track and passes the baton with his left hand into the right hand of the third participant running on the left side of the track; the fourth takes the baton with his left hand and finishes.
In other types of relay running, the athlete, having accepted the baton with his right hand, during the run, transfers it to his left hand; the relay baton is transferred from the left hand to the right hand of the receiver.
3.2 Long jump
The combination of a fast start and a strong push start represents a significant difficulty in the long jump. The main efforts of the long jumper should be aimed at improving these elements. All four phases of the long jump – acceleration, push-off, flight and landing – are interconnected and are equally important.
The acceleration in the long jump resembles the acceleration in short distance running. Its length varies in men from 35 to 45 m, in women from 30 to 35 m. For beginners the run-up is shorter, for skilled athletes it is longer. It is very important that a constant length of the run is determined during training and education. This will allow the jumper to choose a stable rhythm to the run and to hit the push-off bar with the leg with confidence.
The length of the run-up and the control marks can vary depending on the ground, the wind, the feelings of the athlete. As the athlete accelerates, the torso tilt constantly decreases and by the end of the run, the body takes almost a vertical position. By the control mark, the athlete should reach the highest speed of the run. A sort of crouch is performed at the moment of the penultimate, largest step. The last step is 20-30 cm shorter than the previous one. This allows the jumper to accelerate the setting of the push leg on the bar. The setting of the foot is done firmly, as if raking movement under himself, avoiding impact. The foot is placed flat on the bar, touching the ground with the heel and the cleats at the same time.
The push off is very quick and sharp. It is accompanied by coordinated and energetic movements of the swing leg and arms: the swing leg bent at the knee joint is carried forward up to the horizontal hip position; the shoulders are raised; the hands make a strong swing – one forward and slightly inward, the other to the side and backward. The push-off ends with full straightening of the push leg at all joints.
Having pushed off the bar, the jumper performs a series of movements to keep a stable position in flight and in preparation for landing.
According to the movements of the jumper in flight there are the following ways of long jumps: “legs bent”, “crouching” and “scissors”.
When jumping with “bent legs” there is a rotational movement of the body forward and to the side of the kicking leg. Twisting forward forces the jumper to land prematurely, which reduces the result of the jump. It is advantageous to stay in a “step” position in the air a little longer to reduce rotation. In the second half of the flight the jumper pulls the push leg to the fly, raises the knees to the chest and knees down or leaves the arms stretched forward.
When a jumper jumps by the method “bent over” in flight the athlete has a more stable position that allows him to bring his legs further forward when landing and thus increase the athletic performance. The jumper in the air makes a swinging leg movement, trying to step in the air as far forward as possible. After such a “flight in step” the jumper vigorously deflects: this facilitates the subsequent removal of the legs on landing. Dropping his hands forward and actively bringing both feet forward the jumper tries to touch the surface of the sand as far as possible. The method of jumping “scissors” is the most effective. This method of jumping all the strongest jumpers. Its essence is that after pushing off a jumper as if continues running motion in flight.
Landing at all methods of long jump from a running start is made simultaneously on both feet in a pit with sand. It ends with a deep squat and a walk forward or a fall forward to the side. Whichever way the athlete jumps, he should before landing bring out (“throw”) the legs as far forward as possible, while bending forward the torso and pulling back the arms. The most advantageous is a “grouping” when the jumper is in a “sitting” position. At the moment of touching the sand with the heels, legs are slightly separated and, as soon as they get a stop, they bend at the knees. The shoulders and arms are sent forward to avoid falling backward.
The sequence in learning and perfecting the long jump technique from a split jump in different ways is basically identical and can be as follows.
Tactics for the long jumper at the competitions. To go to the place of competition one should dispose of it in such a way that he changes his clothes without any hurry, clarifies the time of his performance, starts the warm-up and finishes it in time. Preparing for the performance the athlete should look carefully at the conditions, try out the competition site and make the necessary adjustments to the run-up. After the call, one should focus on the judge’s commands and on the accurate performance of the jump.
During the execution of the jump it is important to remember the outlined plan, concentrating on the difficult elements. Part of the time between attempts should be used to rest and part of it should be used to prepare for the next attempt. It is better to rest half-lying, and 5 minutes before the jump it is recommended to start preparing for the next attempt – walk, do hops, short jogs and muscle relaxation exercises. If in the previous jump some detail of technique was not successful, do several times the failed element.
3.3 Grenade Throwing
The grenade is thrown from a standing position or a running start. The throwing range is the longest with a running start.
The thrower holds the grenade by the lower half of the handle with the little finger underneath the base and the thumb along the axis of the projectile.
The run-up consists of two parts: from the start (starting position) to the reference mark (15-20 m); from the reference mark to the bar (7-9 m). In the first part of the run, the thrower gains speed, in the second part performs “overtaking” the projectile and throw.
The run starts with an easy run with gradual acceleration. At the control mark the thrower gets to the left leg (when throwing with the right hand), and then begins retraction and “overtaking” the projectile. The steps in this part are called throwing steps. They can be 4, 6, or more. The most common option – 4 steps. Retraction of the grenade can be performed in two ways: in an arc forward – down – back or straight – back. The advantage of the first is the naturalness of movement of the arm with the projectile.
At the first throwing step the shoulders are turned to the right and slightly tilted to the same side, the arm with the grenade starts to retract. By the end of the second throwing step, the rotation of the shoulders ends and the thrower is in a position with his left side to the direction of the run. The arm with the grenade is fully withdrawn and straightened out. The third step is particularly important to get the thrower into a comfortable throwing position. It is called “crossing over” because the right leg overtakes the left leg and is placed crosswise in front of the left leg with the heel on the outside of the foot with the toe facing outward. The throwing arm remains straight. Shoulders and pelvis are turned to the right and the left arm, bent at the elbow, is placed in front of the chest. At the same time, the left leg is pulled up to the right leg and is ready for the next, fourth step. The fourth step is performed by the left foot, which, as if anticipating the action of the right, quickly brought forward and resiliently put on the heel, followed by a transition to the whole foot inward sock. Completing the fourth step, the athlete takes the starting position for the final effort – “jerk.
In the final effort phase, first the leg muscles and then the torso and arms are engaged, and the thrower must maintain a stable footing throughout the throw. The optimum angle of departure of the projectile is about 40-42° to the horizon, the grenade in flight usually rotates vertically in the plane of flight.
After the throw to keep the balance the thrower takes a quick step forward with his right leg turning inwards, bending the leg at the knee joint and slowing down the body movement forward. In doing so, he may make several hops on the foot without touching the bar. The balance is maintained by movements of the arms and left leg.
We recommend this sequence of learning and improving the grenade throwing technique.
Familiarization with throwing technique.
Holding the grenade and throwing from the spot.
Mastering the final effort in throwing from the place and from the step
Left foot.
Learning throwing technique of steps and arrival to the starting
throwing position.
Free running with a grenade in hand.
Improving the technique of throwing the grenade from a running start.
Safety precautions must be strictly observed when throwing. There must not be people in the throwing area. Throwing is carried out only in one direction, projectiles to the place of throwing should be carried in the hands (not thrown).
In the initial study of throwing techniques we recommend using a grenade with a long handle; you can make it yourself from wood or other material. To develop quickness of movement when throwing a grenade, lightweight projectiles and tennis balls can be used.
4. World and Olympic records in athletics. Outstanding athletes
World records in athletics refer to the achievement of the highest results, which may be accomplished by an individual athlete or by a team of athletes, and conditions must be comparable and repeatable. All world records are ratified according to the IAAF. New records can also be set directly in the course of IAAF World Events, in full accordance with the list of disciplines available for the sport.
The concept of the highest world record is also quite common. This achievement belongs to those achievements which do not belong to the list of Athletics disciplines on the IAAF approved list of Athletics disciplines. Such track and field sports which do not belong to the list of IAAF track and field disciplines are the 50 meter running and throwing different weights.
In all IAAF-approved disciplines, records are measured according to the metric system, which includes meters and seconds. The only exception to this rule is the mile run.
The first highest world achievements are historically attributed to the middle of the 19th century. That’s when the institute of professional athletes appeared in England and first began to measure the best time in the 1 mile. Since 1914, with the appearance of the IAAF, a centralized procedure for recording records was established and a list of disciplines in which world records were recorded.
At the Mexico City Olympics in 1968, a fully automatic timekeeping system accurate to a hundredth of a second was used for the first time (Jim Hines, 9.95 seconds in the 100 m). Since 1976, the IAAF has made the use of automatic timing in sprints mandatory.
The oldest world record in the Olympic track and field disciplines is the women’s 800 m open track record (1:53.28), set on 26 July 1983 by Jaromila Kratochvilova of Czechoslovakia.
The oldest world record of the disciplines included in the world championships is the winter record in the women’s shot put (22.50 m), set on 19 February 1977 by Helena Fibingerova (Czechoslovakia).
The IAAF pays a bonus for setting world records. In 2007, for example, it paid out a prize of 50,000 USD. Organizers of commercial events may set prize money for exceeding the world record, which attracts spectators and sponsors.
Athletics fans often discuss records in the vertical jumps, especially the pole vault. The pole vaulter Sergei Bubka (USSR, Ukraine), who set 35 world records between 1984 and 1994, is the all-time record holder in this discipline.
Yelena Isinbayeva holds 27 world records and was the first woman in the world to conquer the height of 5 meters in 2005.
The American Dick Fosbery won in Mexico City in 1968 using a previously unknown method (flying over the bar with his back instead of stomach). The world record for this discipline was only surpassed in 1973 by Dwight Stones, who flew 2m 30cm. There was no doubt that the technique of the pole-vaulters and throwers of all four discus, hammer, shot-put, javelin and javelin improved. But long jumpers and triple jumpers have improved their technique to a lesser extent in the last 20-40 years and runners even less. For example, Michael Johnson held the world record in the 200 m for 12 years (Usain Bolt in Beijing in 2008, broke his world record in the 200 m), and in the 400 m his unbeaten achievement is 10 years old now.
On the one hand: more and more countries and athletes are becoming involved in athletics at a high level. In pre-war times, more than 80 percent of the world records in the sprints, jumps and throws belonged to Americans. Only in endurance track and field were they overtaken by Europeans. Some 40 years ago, Americans themselves thought that short-distance running was for black people and medium- and long-distance running was for white people. In those years, world records in 800 meters were held by a blond New Zealander Peter Snell and in 1500 – by a phenomenal record of an Australian Herb Elliot, which lasted for 7 years until it was beaten by a white American Jim Ryan.
In 5000m and 10000m the world records were passed first by Englishmen to Russians Vladimir Kutsu and Petr Bolotnikov and then by Cawstranians Ron Clark. But now the natives of Africa, where physical culture and modern methods of training are gradually penetrating, have got their hands on the records. What is surprising: not all countries of the Black Continent supply records holders, but only some of them. Moreover, in Kenya, a multi-ethnic country with a population of 30 million, all the famous runners, including the many record-breakers and Olympic winners, are from only one Kalenjin people. It is even more interesting that the majority of Kenya’s record-breakers were born in the highland town of Eldorets with a population of 80,000 people or in the villages close to it. And many of them are related to each other. As Beijing Olympic 800 champion Wilfred Bungei told our correspondent, world record holder Wilson Kipketeri and multiple world record holder Henry Rono are his cousins, distant relatives Kepchogo Keino, Pamela Gelimo. Moroccan record holders and former world record holders Khalid Skah, Said Ayita and El Geroudj also come from the same small mountain province.
The world elite of endurance running also includes young natives of Sudan. And Yuri Borzakovsky contrary to any logic has been beating talented natives of Africa (or rather some of its regions) for 10 years who also take the citizenship of the USA, Denmark, Turkey, Emirates, France and Sweden.
The situation is similar for sprinters. In the 100 meter dash, the last white world record holder was German Armin Haripolwek. After him (plus another 30 years before him), the record for the fastest distance has only been consistently improved by dark-skinned Americans. In recent years, they have been increasingly challenged by dark-skinned inhabitants of islands near the American continent – mainly Jamaica. Usain Bolt is proof of that. He ran the 100 m in 9.58 seconds. The athletes who have won the most gold medals in Olympic history are Carl Lewis (USA) and Paavo Nurmi (Finland), with 9 gold medals.
Outstanding results in the history of world sport have been shown by athletes such as:
Robert Korzeniowski (Poland)
Jesse Owens (USA)
Valery Brumel (USSR)
Al Orter (USA)
Sergey Bubka(USSR-Ukraine)
Michael Johnson(USA)
Hicham El Guerrouj(Morocco)
Haile Gebrselassie(Ethiopia)
Kenenisa Bekele(Ethiopia)
Usain Bolt(Jamaica)
Nina Ponomareva-Romashkova (USSR)
Tatiana Kazankina (USSR)
Irena Szewińska(Poland)
Heike Drechsler (GDR)
Wilma Rudolph(USA)
Stefka Kostadinova(Bulgaria)
Jackie Joyner-Kersee(USA)
Meseret Defar(Ethiopia)
Tirunesh Dibaba (Ethiopia)
Yelena Isinbayeva (Russia)
5. Problems in athletics
Currently, world athletics is in a dual position – on the one hand, successful development, on the other – fire of criticism. There are many problems in the sport, the solution of which does not seem quite realistic.Athletics competitions have been held for more than 150 years. Analyzing this period, we can conclude that during these years there has been a successful development of the sport. But a closer look reveals that the problems associated with the structure of competitions are now growing due to the expansion of the regions covered. Athletics competitions, originally held in Europe and North America, have become a global sport. It is this, in addition to its success, that causes the obvious skepticism. Moreover, while the expansion of athletics’ influence was originally seen as an undeniable success, it is now the subject of emerging problems. Thus, it is possible to view the current global development from both a positive perspective and some critical perspectives.
Athletes competing in athletics perform in front of an audience of spectators. Athletes have the opportunity to win the appreciation of the fans, and the fans, in turn, enjoy the spectacle they see. Importantly, spectators usually pay for the pleasure to come and thus fund, directly or indirectly, athletics competitions. In order to highlight the problem in this matter, it is necessary to consider different categories of spectators. The first category are those who purchase tickets in order to attend the competition. The second are television viewers who indirectly pay to watch the competition. The third group, which calls itself the “athletics family,” tries to attend all competitions, but for free. A fourth group attends the competition because they are the sponsor of the competition. They may not be very interested in the competition, but being at the competition is their job. The fifth group are guests and their presence is a gift from sponsors who, by showing hospitality, do their own business. The sixth group consists of schoolchildren, who naturally watch the competition for free; their function is to fill the stadium and thus show interest in athletics.
Looking at the spectator audience at athletics competitions in more detail, we can see that the first two groups of spectators are crucial in the promotion of the sport. However, the ratio between paying and “free” spectators is beginning to grow disastrously in favor of the latter. Even at events such as the World Championships in Athletics, the number of paid spectators was 60%. Excluding the Olympics and World Championships, other athletics events gather a rather modest number of viewers. Eurosport’s live coverage of the Grand Prix draws between 80,000 and 200,000 spectators, which is not considered efficient enough.
Athletics competitions only generate great interest when outstanding athletes participate. Importantly, athletes’ achievements continue to improve and athletes become idols to the public, increasing the appeal of the sport. Becoming famous can be done through opportunities other than high performance. English-speaking athletes have some advantages in this regard. However, Chinese, Russian, and Spanish athletes also have opportunities to become idols to a certain segment of the audience in world sport. When considering the problem of the development of spectatorship, we can say that in world athletics we should note the declining importance of Europe and North America.
Attention must also be paid to the structure of high-class results. Athletes are trying to prolong their careers as long as possible in order to make more money, so now many of them are performing at a high level, reaching the age of 30. However, the situation of having a significant number of high-class athletes can halt the development of the sport. Careers can last a long time, but at the very top of the list of the most outstanding athletes there are constant changes. New stars emerge regularly from various regions, but their lives as idols are usually short. Experienced stars tend to plan their performances around the highest possible returns, which often conflicts with the planning of competition programs. In such a semi-professional situation, the role of managers increases significantly to resolve conflicts.
Turning to the future of today’s coaches, we can note their insignificant role. Coaches must rely only on themselves, be completely dependent on the success of their students, and be willing to earn an income in exceptional cases. Athletes are still organized semi-professionally, then there is no organizational structure for coaches. The existing system of incentives is focused only on athletes, so the permanent profile of the coaches’ work is not defined, the public unknowns of coaches and their activities reduce the attractiveness of their profession. Most coaches rely on additional work, as their income is not adequate. Consistent with this situation, it is not surprising that most of the coaching corps is filled with older people, and young people do not seek to choose the coaching profession for their careers.
Competitive athletics is a particularly problematic area, and we can easily identify problems in the overall structure and rules of competitions. Many spectators complain of boredom during competitions. The reasons they complain about are many – unequal competitive conditions, poor information, information boards too far away and often broken, too many different events taking place simultaneously, many events too far away from spectators. And the list is endless.
Next, the hierarchy of our competitions. Many athletes can compete in the Gold League and then compete in Grand Prix II for days at a time. In other sports, it is impossible to compete in an amateur league on Wednesday and then in a professional league on Sunday. And only in athletics is it possible. It’s also difficult to compare one competition to another. Some focus on running, others on throwing, and it is also possible to combine different types of athletics in the same event. Not surprisingly, it is often impossible to assess the competition rating and announce it to the spectators.
Now for the rules. As a special example, the use of leaders or “bunnies” to show high or record results in middle and long distance running. If we look at the rule-making process, we note that at the IAAF Congresses, held every two years, lengthy debates on the problems of changing competition rules are constantly taking place. Athletics is probably the only sport where the competition rules are constantly changing. Perhaps such changes can diminish interest in athletics. Sometimes some change has just been made, and the next one is already in preparation.
The problems of competition in outdoor stadiums are also quite pressing. Soccer associations are completely abandoning the coexistence with athletics that has been in Europe for over 100 years. Modern soccer stadiums have no room for a running track, and the creation of specialized athletics stadiums is not yet considered.
Interestingly, athletics is moving away from traditional stadiums, moving to the outdoors. High jumping to music, pole vaulting at beaches or bazaars, shot put at malls. Such competitions are not conducted under the auspices of the IAAF and often without respect for the rules. This suggests that perhaps the future of athletics will be outside the stadium. This is a very risky path. The entire history of athletics has developed as a species with many different sports, and to fragment it into separate sports for the benefit of separate groups is dangerous and a loss of our unity.
The issue of advertising and support for athletics is a very painful one, as the situation is extremely negative. Currently, the sport works very closely with advertising companies. However, the distribution of advertising often does not achieve the necessary goals and does not lead to increased sales of the products advertised. And this is where new ideas are needed. There are as yet no long-term advertising programs that make use of the many information channels. There is little use of television and the Internet, and we are not learning from our mistakes. It is unfortunate that the image of great athletes, which is a huge potential in terms of attracting sponsors to athletics, is underutilized.The IAAF has a number of sponsors: Adidas (contract until 2019), Seiko, Epson, TDK, with Samsung recently joining the ranks.
There is a kind of cultural conflict in the athletics system that is rarely discussed at the moment. It is primarily an issue of competition in halls. The conflict is between Europe and North America and countries in Asia, South America and Africa. If Africans take part in our summer competitions, the Europeans are unwilling to do the same during the African summer. It is clear that this issue is primarily an economic one, and in the future, athletics will be increasingly dependent on world economic markets for its development. With few exceptions, such markets are currently located in the regions of Europe and North America. From these perspectives, holding competitions in halls is productive enough, but from the perspective of world culture, it is undoubtedly unprofitable. Usually these issues are not often discussed, but as the world economy changes and some economic markets move to other regions, a new regional athletics policy needs to be discussed.
The aging of society in some countries is a national fact, and it affects sports and athletics in particular. This process is evident in most industrialized and post-industrial countries and affects many aspects of citizen activity. Sociologists have noted a certain correlation between health, ability to work, level of consumption and distribution of free time in different countries depending on the age of the population. Today, the demographic ratio of age categories in some regions poses a real threat to the development of athletics. To take the following fact as an example: in 1950, the difference in the average age of the population of Yemen and Japan was 3.4 years. Now these states represent the youngest and oldest nation, with an average age difference of 27 years. By 2015, the difference will be 34 years for Japan and 32 for Europe. The significant aging of Japan and Europe leads to unpredictable social problems. China, India, much of Southeast Asia, and Latin America are also aging rapidly, and they too will face an aging crisis. Only the U.S. represents a positive exception so far. There, the birth rate is at a normal level, and this keeps the average age of the population at a constant value. Countries with low median ages may also face social problems in the future. The fertility index in European countries-such as Germany, Spain, Italy, Greece, and Eastern European countries-is 1.3 or lower, which could cause problems in competitive sports, including athletics, in the near future. Significant numbers of elderly people are causing a decrease in attraction to athletics and leading to an increase in interest in activities such as tourism and other areas in the growing market for older members of society.
Modern athletics faces many challenges. The major headache for the International Athletics Federation (IAAF) remains the problem of doping, which continues to attack the sport of athletics from all sides. The use of chemicals and physiological stimulants to artificially enhance performance in athletics has existed as long as professional sport. The first cases of the use of performance-enhancing drugs date back to antiquity.Until the 1980s, cases of doping use were isolated, not fully confirmed and did not attract public opinion, being the exception to the rule. In 1968, world record holders Irina and Tamara Press retired from the sport after the Olympic Games, as an additional procedure, introduced gender testing of female athletes. Since the 1980s, the IAAF decided to fundamentally change its approach to athletes’ doping use and sanctions. Anti-doping tests had existed for quite some time, but the procedure was such that athletes could prepare in advance. In 1984, Tatiana Kazankina, during a competition in Paris, was suddenly invited for a doping test, refused and was disqualified.
In 1988, a major scandal erupted in the case of Ben Johnson, the Canadian sprinter who had won the 100 m final at the Seoul Olympics. The next day, Johnson was disqualified due to the discovery of the drug stanazol in his system. Then scandals began to follow one after another Katrin Krabbe (Germany, World Champion 1991 Sprint), Randy Barnes (USA, Olympic Champion 1996 shot put), Ludmila Enqvist-Narozhilenko (USSR/Russia 100m hurdles, Olympic Champion) and others. Since 1984, there has not been an Olympic Games without a major doping incident involving track and field athletes.
After German reunification, the former representative of the vanguard of track and field athletics, the German Democratic Republic, had a particularly large number of athletes and coaches caught and voluntarily confessed. Heike Drechsler, Ruth Fuchs, Ilona Slupianek joined the list of dopers with voluntary confessions. Heidi (Andreas) Krieger, the 1986 European champion in the shot put, has become one of the symbols of the fight for the purity of sports. She underwent an operation for a sex adaptation in 1997, as the use of illegal drugs caused a change in her sexual characteristics.
A significant number of world records in track and field have aroused the legitimate suspicions of specialists, even though the athletes have not been caught and have not themselves admitted it. This is especially true of women’s track and field. These include, for example, the 400 m world record of Marita Koch (GDR), the 100 m and 200 m records of Florence Griffith-Joyner, the 3000 m and 10,000 m records. The problem is that today’s female athletes cannot even come close to the results of the 1970s and 1980s. In track and field, the experience of weightlifting, where a new grid of weight categories was introduced and thus all previous world records were simply cancelled, is inapplicable. The Nordic countries propose to cancel world records in athletics set before 2000. Athletics federations of these countries are going to make such an initiative at the Congress of the International Association of Athletics Federations /IAAF/, held in conjunction with the World Championships in Paris on August 20.
“The records that were shown in the 1980s and 1990s cannot be surpassed because they were achieved by athletes who doped,” said Svein Arne Hansen, president of the Norwegian Athletics Federation. He claimed that “many world records have been shown by doping. It is not a secret, there have been legal proceedings in some cases. Now we have to cross out all these records set before 2000”.
As the Norwegian Telegraph Office notes today, Norway and a number of other European countries had already advocated the elimination of some world records back in 1999. But then it was not possible to do. Now the Nordic countries are entering a new phase of the fight, led by the president of the Norwegian Athletics Federation.
“I think this action is extremely relevant,” emphasized Svein Arne Hansen. He believes that many European states will support the proposal, but it is not enough. For the proposal to be accepted, it is important that the U.S. also join it.
Since January 1997, all athletes who were among the world’s twenty best have been given a special ID card, which contains all of the information about their anti-doping examinations. This card was called the IAAF Elite Athletes Club. Only this card opens the door to receiving cash prizes at championships. In the card, the lifter also signs a commitment: “As one of the best athletes in the world, I agree to support the governing body of world athletics, the IAAF, in its efforts to promote clean and fair athletics. As my contribution to this noble cause, I pledge to abide by the rules and laws of the IAAF.
Conclusion
The Track and Field and Field and Cross Country Association (TAFISA), representing the International Olympic Committee (IOC) Standing Committee Working Group, has released its list of the world’s 20 most popular and widespread sports (as a percentage of all sports played in 200 countries) and track and field has emerged as the world’s most popular and best sport, ahead of soccer which came in second place.
The trend in world athletics over the past ten to fifteen years is a “dispersion” of medals over the maximum number of participating countries. While in the late 1980s more than 70% of the medals were won by the USSR, the USA and the GDR, no country currently enjoys such hegemony.
